Cyan, which is created by mixing blue and green, when combined with magenta, yields shades of red. Initially, the mixture may appear as a cool, bluish-red tone, but as more magenta is added, the color deepens into richer shades of red. Depending on the proportions of cyan and magenta used, the resulting red can range from vibrant and intense to deeper and more burgundy-like. Experimenting with different ratios of cyan and magenta allows for the creation of a diverse range of red hues.
Magenta, a color derived from red and blue, when mixed with yellow, produces a vibrant range of red-orange hues. Initially, the combination may result in a vivid reddish-orange tone, but as more yellow is introduced, the color becomes brighter and more reminiscent of tangerines or sunset hues. Adjusting the ratio of magenta to yellow allows for control over the intensity and warmth of the resulting red-orange color.
Mixing red and yellow together yields shades of orange. Initially, the mixture may appear as a bright vermilion hue, but as more yellow is added, the color transitions to warmer tones of orange. Depending on the proportions of red and yellow used, the resulting orange can range from vivid and fiery to softer and more subdued. Experimentation with different ratios of red and yellow allows for the creation of a spectrum of orange shades.
Since I’ve decided to delve deeper into the color red, I’ve conducted a few experiments on color mixing with the color red.
Mixing Red and Blue
When mixing red and blue together, you’ll observe a gradual transition from the original colors to shades of purple. As more blue is added, the resulting color becomes cooler and tends towards violet. Conversely, adding more red will warm up the mixture, producing deeper shades of magenta. Through experimentation with different ratios of red and blue, you can achieve various tones of purple, ranging from vibrant violets to rich magentas.
sRGB stands for „Standard Red Green Blue“ and refers to a standardized color space that is widely used in many applications and devices. Originally developed for use in digital displays and web graphics, sRGB is now a widely accepted standard for color representation in various applications and devices.
The sRGB color space defines a limited palette of colors that can typically be displayed and processed by most computer monitors, digital cameras, printers, and web browsers. It was designed to ensure consistent and predictable color reproduction across different devices and to ensure that images and graphics appear similar regardless of where they are viewed.
Compared to larger color spaces such as Adobe RGB or DCI-P3, sRGB covers a smaller range of hues. However, it is sufficient for most everyday applications and provides good color accuracy and consistency.
sRGB is often used as the standard color space for displaying content on the web. When creating images or graphics for the web, it is common to save them in the sRGB color space to ensure they are correctly displayed by most web browsers.
It is important to note that color reproduction in sRGB can also depend on the calibration of the screen or printer. Accurate color calibration and profiling of devices are necessary to ensure that colors in the sRGB color space are accurately reproduced.
ICC-based color management workflows have become the norm for ensuring consistent color reproduction from screen to print. Many professional workflows center around the Adobe RGB (1998) ICC color profile, initially introduced in Adobe® Photoshop® 5.0 software and now integrated across the Adobe product range.
Each device used for capturing and reproducing graphics — whether it’s a scanner, digital camera, monitor, or printer — possesses distinct capabilities for reproducing color, leading to color discrepancies. In an ICC-based color management system, color profiles are established for each device so that the colors in an image can be adjusted throughout the workflow to compensate for the variations in each supported device. The objective is to maintain the visual integrity of the image as much as possible.
Efficient color management necessitates attaching a color profile to every image or graphic to indicate the „native“ color conditions — also known as the color space — under which the file was created. Adobe applications introduced the concept of a „working“ color space, one not necessarily linked to a specific device but representing the ideal conditions for image reproduction. The Adobe RGB (1998) profile has gained widespread adoption as a working space due to its expansive and balanced color gamut, easily adaptable for reproduction on various devices.
Adobe’s own ICC profile for the Adobe RGB (1998) color space is bundled with all Adobe color-managed software applications, including Adobe Acrobat 5.0 and later, Illustrator 9.0 and later, InDesign, GoLive 6.0 and later, Photoshop 5.0.2 and later, and Photoshop Elements software. With appropriate legal agreements, it is also available for distribution by third-party hardware and software vendors. Learn more about the Adobe RGB (1998) color space encoding used for the Adobe RGB (1998) color space.
Legal note concerning color space naming: Only the Adobe RGB (1998) ICC profile created by Adobe Systems Incorporated can accurately be referred to as „Adobe RGB (1998).“ ICC profiles created by other vendors, even if they adhere to the color image encoding described in the Adobe RGB (1998) color image encoding document, cannot be labeled as „Adobe RGB (1998).“ If vendors opt to create their own profile according to this specification and wish to indicate to their customers that this profile was developed in accordance with Adobe’s specification, an alternate phrasing is required, such as compatible with Adobe RGB (1998)“.
In technical jargon, the term „calibration target“ or „calibration goal“ is frequently used. This refers to the data towards which calibration is performed: white point, brightness, and brightness distribution (gamma). In better calibration software, users can choose these targets themselves; whereas cheaper solutions are fixed to common standards.
For brightness distribution, a gamma of 2.2 or alternatively the so-called sRGB curve (which is very similar to gamma 2.2) is generally recommended. Nothing else makes sense on computers today, even if one prefers to work with a gamma 1.8 color space.
When it comes to calibrated gamma, the primary concern is brightness compatibility with operating system graphics and software that operates without color management (e.g., Office programs). Once color management is in play, gamma is automatically adjusted. While calibrating to the gamma of the preferred working color space (if it deviates from 2.2) may offer minimal quality advantages in monitor display and is still occasionally practiced in professional settings, it generally has more disadvantages on normal computers that are not solely used for image editing.
Overall brightness should harmonize with ambient lighting; meaning, in a brightly lit room, the monitor should shine brighter than in a dimly lit back room, so the eye doesn’t have to adjust excessively when looking at the screen. A standard value for averagely lit rooms ranges from 100 to 140 cd/m², while in poorly lit rooms, 60 to 80 cd/m² may be appropriate, and in some very bright rooms, even 400 cd/m² (the maximum of most monitors) may still be insufficient.
Unfortunately, one often encounters „recommendations“ for a specific brightness level. These should be disregarded. There’s no technically justifiable reason why the monitor, for example, needs to be set brighter or darker for editing print images versus web images. The only thing the monitor brightness should be adjusted to is ambient light. Some calibration devices can measure ambient brightness beforehand, providing a good reference point—assuming this brightness remains relatively constant throughout the day (or at least during planned image editing times).
Ideally, the color temperature should also be matched to the color of the ambient light. However, this is often not possible due to changes in natural daylight and the switch to artificial light in the evenings. In such cases, relying on the adaptability of the eye is preferable. The color temperature of the monitor then becomes a matter of habit. Good calibration software allows users to specify any desired color temperature or maintain the monitor’s native color temperature (which is recommended for budget monitors and notebook displays to minimize losses through color conversions).
The most common standard is D65 (6500 Kelvin), which roughly corresponds to direct sunlight. Alternatively, the slightly warmer standard D50 (5000 K) is also suitable. 5800 K is also popular as a compromise; if no standard light is available, the white point doesn’t need to exactly match a standard. If the monitor has a relatively high native color temperature, one can even calibrate to D75 (7500 Kelvin); initially, it may seem cool, but ultimately, it’s just a matter of habit.
D65 (6500 K) is also the defined white point of sRGB and AdobeRGB—which is practically irrelevant, as the white point of the working color space is merely an invisible conversion intermediate. Therefore, there’s no need, nor particular advantage, to calibrate the monitor to D65 for using sRGB or AdobeRGB. Nevertheless, many calibration programs offer such presets and act as if there’s a sensible connection.
Calibration to the working color space? Another formulation occasionally encountered online is someone stating they have „calibrated their monitor to sRGB.“ This implies working without color management and instead fixing the monitor to a specific working color space. This is also referred to as „color space emulation.“
There are specialized programs that allow for the technical adjustment to fixed working color spaces. In practice, this method is mainly applied to projectors and televisions; further information can be found in home theater forums. The process requires a lot of time and specialized knowledge; moreover, only a few computer monitors have the necessary settings in their menus (e.g., a 6-axis correction).
The color space emulation remains a procedure for special cases (e.g., demanding video editing). Otherwise, calibrating to a predetermined working color space is usually not meaningful, and it’s not even provided for in ICC color management. Doing so would limit the monitor’s color space from the outset, rendering it unusable if a larger working or device color space is required.
Common calibration/profile programs that perform „software calibration“ via the graphics card’s LUT inherently do not support color space emulation; if at all possible, it can only be achieved through hardware calibration (or manually, albeit tediously).
A typical calibration according to ICC color management always focuses on white point, brightness, and brightness distribution/gamma as calibration targets. It leaves the monitor’s color space unchanged in size. Adjusting the monitor and working color space is always the responsibility of the application program and needs to be done repeatedly. Therefore, even after calibration, the monitor cannot inherently display the colors of a file „correctly“; it still requires an ICC monitor profile and an application program with color management function.
In the preceding sections, we delved into the principles of color theory and psychology, universally applicable across various applications and fields. In this final segment, let’s take a closer look at specific examples and proven approaches in the fashion industry.
If you’re involved in this industry, you’re likely familiar with curating a suitable color palette for outfits and fashion. Different fashion design schools have distinct approaches, preferences, guidelines, and focal points. Colors and their combinations often align with seasons, occasions, and cultural preferences.
To master the interplay of colors in fashion, a solid understanding of the foundational principles of color theory and knowledge of the color wheel are indispensable. This foundation allows for adept experimentation and the creation of new designs beyond well-trodden fashion and trend paths.
If you prefer sticking to tried-and-true combinations, the following color pairings will keep you on solid ground:
Gray and Red Tones: Red tones and berry purples complement all shades of gray, creating an elegant and balanced color mix. Typically, grays serve as the background or primary color, while red tones accentuate and highlight specific elements. This combination blends a neutral and understated color (gray) as the base with a vibrant color (red or purple) for special moments in a fashion piece. The result is a certain luminosity without being overly assertive.
Yellow and Green: The combination of green and yellow tones is one of the liveliest ways to make your wardrobe stand out, especially in spring or summer. However, it can also serve as a colorful highlight in winter and darker seasons. This combination tends to look good on most skin tones. Pairing a yellow blazer with a green skirt, especially with jeans, creates a standout look. Enhance this look with gold and/or green accessories.
Red and Blue: Take your favorite jeans and pair them with a red top, and you can be sure to have a successful outfit. Combining blue denim with red clothing is extremely popular, and vibrant reds create an eye-catching effect, complementing the subdued blue of denim. This combination exudes confidence, vitality, and strength, often encountered in the summer months. If introducing a third color, consider neutral, light tones such as white, gray, or light creams.
(Light) Brown Tones and Chestnut or Burgundy: For a less vibrant but earthy and harmonious color scheme in your wardrobe, brown tones, especially paired with slightly reddish „chestnut,“ work exceptionally well. This combination effortlessly creates a successful autumn outfit. Lighter browns like beige, sand tones, ochre, or cognac blend seamlessly with the slightly darker chestnut. As a possible third color, you can opt for white, light yellows, or soft pink. Exercise some discretion to avoid overloading the outfit. In place of chestnut, burgundy, Bordeaux red, or wine red also pairs wonderfully with soft brown tones.
Pink and White: Another classic combo in the fashion world is the pairing of pink and white. Especially popular among young women and teens, this combination exudes a charming effect, emphasizing femininity in a playful manner. Large white portions have a calming effect on the human eye, radiating a touch of innocence and purity. To soften the strong contrast of these colors, consider gray tones, soft pink, or ivory as alternatives to white. If pink seems too vibrant, explore related colors such as purple, lilac, or violet.
Colors evoke moods and emotions, a recognition that dates back to Goethe, as mentioned earlier. Surrounding this realization, an entire profession has emerged, and color psychology has become an integral part of design and marketing.
Colors have the power to elicit various reactions and associations in people, often independent of individual experiences. Emotions wield more influence than rational thoughts based on facts and figures. Therefore, the impact of colors is extensively harnessed in everyday economic activities.
Several universally accepted insights and rules have been established regarding the psychological effects of colors:
Yellow: Yellow is a bright, luminous color that radiates optimism, enlightenment, and joy. Shades of golden yellow promise a positive future. Yellow stands out from surrounding colors and draws the viewer’s attention. This color provides energy and fosters positive thoughts. Additionally, it stimulates mental processes, activates the nervous system, enhances memory, and has an invigorating effect on communication.
Green: Green, omnipresent in nature, is perhaps the most widespread color in our lives. Found abundantly in nature, it is one of the most favored colors among people, making it ideal for background and interior design. Green has calming and soothing effects on the mind and body, supporting mental and physical relaxation. It is effective against depression, anxiety, and nervousness, conveying a sense of renewal, self-control, and harmony. Green also promotes self-esteem, dignity, stability, endurance, a sense of duty, authority, and autonomy.
Blue: Blue symbolizes trustworthiness, reliability, and commitment. As the color of the sky and seas, it is perceived as a constant force in our lives. Blue is known for its calming effect and can even lower the viewer’s pulse. It has a tranquil and cool effect, strengthens intuition, and promotes calmness, contentment, equilibrium, thoughtfulness, and a sense of connection.
Violet: Violet or purple embodies the interplay of stimulating red and calming blue. It carries a touch of mystique, mystery, and spirituality. Simultaneously, violet exudes a sense of royalty and regality. This color is particularly popular among creative individuals, eccentric personalities, and young girls. It has an activating and stimulating effect, soothing both the body and mind, evoking a sensual, spiritual touch, and enhancing creativity.
Pink: Pink is vibrant, lively, youthful, cheeky, and reflects great joy. Bright pink can generate the same energy as red tones, appearing sensual and passionate without the aggressiveness of bright red. By adding more white, the color becomes softer while retaining its sensuality. These shades are excellent for romantic occasions, stimulating and energizing, potentially increasing blood pressure and accelerating heartbeat and breathing. Pink encourages empathy, sensitivity, fascination, charm, and devotion.
Red: No other color is as laden with emotions and personal associations as red. It is highly activating, stimulating, and generates a considerable amount of energy in the viewer. The strategic use of red is effective in capturing attention. Red is unequivocally a signaling color and symbolizes love and passion. It is highly activating, exudes a high level of strength and energy, can increase blood pressure, accelerate heartbeat and breathing, and fosters confidence, strength, vitality, passion, activity, dynamism, competition, and eroticism. Red imparts a sense of protection against fears and uncertainties.
Orange: Orange, a close relative of red, elicits a wide range of thoughts and feelings in the viewer, either strong fondness or distinct aversion. It is less commonly met with indifference compared to other colors. Bright orange exudes joy and fun, radiating warm energy. It inspires activity, stimulates appetite, and encourages sociability.
White: White symbolizes purity, innocence, and neutrality. White doves, for instance, represent peace. Doctors consciously wear white coats, and the classic wedding dress is white. White clears the mind, encourages order, has a soothing and peace-inducing effect, and aids in new beginnings.
Gray: Gray is the color of intellect, wisdom, and knowledge. It is perceived as stable, classic, smooth, dignified, and cultivated. Gray is associated with conservative power, conveying authority, and serves as a neutral background color in designs. It can, however, lead to uncertainty, raise expectations, and promote neutrality, detachment, indifference, ambiguity, and seclusion.
Black: Black carries a strong impact and primarily symbolizes authority. Excessive use of black can overwhelm the viewer. Black is the absolute absence of light, representing emptiness and darkness. When used in conjunction with other colors, black can enhance their brilliance, making it a preferred choice in small doses. In fashion, black holds a special place, signifying classic elegance. It makes the wearer appear slimmer, more refined, and sophisticated, making it highly popular in clothing choices. Black imparts elegance to the wearer and a sense of inconspicuousness, symbolizes emptiness and infinity, creates a mysterious atmosphere, nurtures hope for new possibilities, and fosters determination and/or rebellion.
Understanding the fundamentals of color theory prompts the practical application of these principles. Design initiatives and artistic projects commonly commence with the assembly or curation of a harmonious color combination, termed a color scheme.
In scenarios where one or two colors are predetermined based on brand or product considerations, the objective becomes the creation of a 3-5 color palette that resonates seamlessly. This process necessitates a systematic approach, considering that certain color combinations inherently appear more harmonious than others, irrespective of individual preferences.
Several methodologies can be employed:
Contextual Consideration: Always factor in the context of color perception, acknowledging that colors manifest differently in contrast to various backgrounds. The pairing of green with white differs significantly from its pairing with dark blue or black.
Analogous Color Selection: Begin with a primary color and select two additional colors positioned adjacently on the color wheel. Extending the palette to include more colors involves stepping outward to the next neighbors of the two outer colors. Analogous palettes are characterized by subdued contrasts and are generally suited for softer, pastel, and low-contrast compositions.
Complementary Color Selection: Select colors positioned diametrically opposite each other on the color wheel. Adjusting the intensity of these complementary colors can mitigate the high-contrast effect. Exercise caution with this method, as it tends to produce pronounced contrasts. It is often advisable to emphasize one color in the design, utilizing the complementary color as a subtle accent to prevent overwhelming visuals.
Monochromatic Color Scheme: Utilize various shades or variations of a single hue, incorporating black and/or white. Despite lacking stark color contrasts, monochromatic schemes project cleanliness, uniformity, and harmony. This approach is apt for designs where subtlety and supportiveness take precedence over grabbing attention.
Triadic Color Scheme: Opt for three colors evenly distributed on the color wheel. These colors are equidistant from each other and can be identified by drawing rays from the center of the circle. Refinement involves considering the ratio during application, such as using a light color for backgrounds and a dark one for prominent elements.
Split-Complementary Contrast: Choose a dominant color and select two directly adjacent complementary colors. While this scheme offers a nuanced palette compared to the traditional complementary selection, it maintains a rich contrast and may require careful coordination for optimal results. Use this approach judiciously, especially after gaining experience in creating color palettes.
Personal Approach – Beyond Guidelines: With experience, explore unconventional approaches. While pre-existing color palettes based on established principles are available, don’t hesitate to forge new paths. Initiate with a color of choice and experiment with combinations. Allow time for reflection, fine-tune as necessary, and observe the resonance of palettes. Over time, individuals familiar with this domain develop an intuition for harmonious color selections.
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